From Neuroscience to Design: Creating Spaces that Nurture Childhood Learning

A child’s brain is a dynamic and intricate system composed of billions of neurons that continuously evolve in response to both genetic programming and environmental stimuli. Every interaction with their surroundings shapes their perceptions, learning, and future abilities. Thus, children require spaces that are not only safe but also rich in sensory, social, and cognitive experiences that actively support their growth and development.

Despite the growing body of research on childhood development, many spaces designed for children rely on outdated assumptions rather than scientific understanding. Too often, these environments are created based on conventional ideas of play and learning. Controlling play and limiting it to designated areas or learning mostly while sitting and listening, rather than on an evidence-based approach that considers the complexity of the developing brain. This can result in spaces that fail to fully meet children’s developmental needs.

Following a literature review, we will share information from conversations with experts in child development and design, including 1) Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Temple University, Kathy Kirsch-Pasek, 2) researcher and expert in child-friendly cities, Beata Patuszyńska, and 3) an architect specializing in the design of educational spaces, Louise Lindquist Sassene. We will then synthesize our research findings into practical design guidelines. These guidelines will explore how neuroscience and architecture intersect to shape environments that foster learning, well-being, and thriving communities for children. 

Understanding Children’s Brain Development 

Brain development is a long and dynamic process, beginning as early as the third week of gestation and continuing well into early adulthood.  The brain consists of over 100 billion neurons, each forming thousands of connections, resulting in more than 60 trillion synapses—the junctions where neurons communicate. These connections are responsible for everything from thought and memory to emotions and movement, and are shaped by a combination of genetic instructions and environmental influences.

During early childhood, the brain undergoes rapid growth, quadrupling in size by the time a child reaches preschool age and reaching 90% of its adult volume by age six . This period is marked by an explosion of neural connections, a process known as synaptogenesis, where neurons form intricate communication networks. At the same time, neurogenesis—the birth of new neurons—helps build the brain’s structural foundation.

A defining feature of early brain development is neuroplasticity, the brain’s remarkable ability to rewire itself in response to experiences. This adaptability is particularly strong in childhood, allowing children to learn languages, develop motor skills, and absorb social cues at an astonishing rate. Scientists have identified two key types of learning that shape neural connections:

• Experience-expectant learning: The brain is primed to expect certain environmental stimuli, such as exposure to language and movement. These experiences help shape the basic architecture of the brain.
• Experience-dependent learning: Beyond the basics, the brain continues to refine and reorganize itself based on unique life experiences, such as learning an instrument, playing sports, or engaging in social interactions.

As children grow, their brains shift from rapid expansion to refinement. Some neural connections that are frequently used become stronger, while those that are unused are eliminated in a process called synaptic pruning. This helps the brain become more efficient, improving cognitive abilities, decision-making, and emotional regulation. White matter, which facilitates communication between different brain regions, also continues to develop into early adulthood, enhancing skills like reasoning and problem-solving.

Scientists have long been interested in how early experiences shape brain development. Landmark studies by Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb have explored the impact of enriched versus deprived environments on brain function. Subsequent research has confirmed that animals raised in stimulating, socially interactive environments exhibit greater neural complexity, stronger synaptic connections, and even enhanced blood flow to the brain. These effects persist even when animals are later moved to less enriched environments. Conversely, research by Hubel and Wiesel in 1970 demonstrated that sensory deprivation, such as blocking vision in one eye early in life, led to permanent changes in the brain’s visual processing centers.

These findings highlight a crucial insight: the brain is shaped by what it experiences. Enriched environments—those filled with sensory-motor, social, and cognitive stimulation—lead to stronger, more flexible neural networks. In contrast, deprived environments can limit cognitive and emotional development.

Factors Influencing Brain Development: Insights for Designers and Architects

Understanding how brain development is shaped by early experience is essential for creating environments that support children’s cognitive, emotional, and social growth. From sensory stimulation to secure social interactions, each condition leaves a mark on the developing brain. Advances in neuroscience continue to reveal the complex interplay between biological systems and environmental input—underscoring the long-term impact of nurturing relationships, appropriate stimulation, and balanced nutrition on learning and mental well-being.

As Kolb emphasizes, elements such as early sensory input, caregiver presence, physical activity, and emotional safety dynamically influence how neural networks form and reorganize, particularly during sensitive periods of development. These experiences can lead to measurable changes in brain structure and chemistry, shaping resilience, attention, and executive functioning. 

For those who shape the built environment, this knowledge carries clear implications. Decisions about space, light, acoustics, spatial organization, and access to nature are likely to affect brain development—either supporting or undermining it, depending on their quality and consistency. 

The table below summarizes key environmental influences on brain development, offering a reference point for creating more developmentally supportive spaces.

Designing for Positive Child Experiences

Children are natural learners, constantly exploring their surroundings. Play, a fundamental part of childhood, is their primary way of engaging with the world. As Albert Einstein famously said, “Play is the highest form of research.”

Designing for brain development means translating insights from neuroscience into everyday experiences that children actually encounter. Research shows that enriched environments support neuroplasticity, cognitive growth, and emotional regulation. But what does this look like in practice? The following five principles distill key experiential drivers of child development. Together, they offer a human-centered lens for shaping spaces that not only meet children’s biological needs but also honor their agency, relationships, and innate drive to play.

To design environments that foster growth and well-being, we must understand five essential drivers of positive childhood experience:

1. Play: Play is not just an activity; it is a fundamental need. Different forms of play enhance collaboration, communication, critical thinking, creativity, and confidence. By integrating play into everyday environments, we create opportunities for learning everywhere.
2. Safety: A secure environment is crucial for a child’s ability to explore and learn without fear. Safety considerations include protection from physical threats (such as traffic or unsafe structures), social threats (bullying, exclusion), and psychological threats (uncertainty, lack of guidance).
3. Belonging: Children thrive when they feel emotionally connected to their surroundings. Designing for belonging means fostering interactions between children and their peers, as well as between children and adults, ensuring spaces feel welcoming and inclusive.
4. Agency: Giving children a sense of control over their environment enhances their confidence and decision-making skills. Spaces that allow participation, adaptability, and engagement encourage children to take initiative and understand the impact of their choices.
5. Inclusion: Designing for all children means considering different needs, abilities, and backgrounds. Universal and ergonomic design, cultural sensitivity, and accessibility ensure that every child, regardless of ability or circumstance, feels seen and valued in their environment.

These five principles align closely with the concept of environmental enrichment, reinforcing the importance of spaces that support children’s holistic development. Enrichment is strongly linked to play: various types of play contribute to neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, and cognitive reserve. Play also supports other developmental needs, where shared activities, predictability, autonomy, and emotional support play critical roles in fostering truly enriched environments (see diagram 1).

Applying Drivers of Positive Child Experiences to Design

To create environments that facilitate positive childhood experiences, it is essential to consider how the five drivers introduced above translate into design decisions. This section explores how social and physical environments interact to provide the conditions necessary for positive experiences and healthy brain development.

Below, we will attempt to critically analyze each of these drivers through the following lenses:

• Definition – What does it mean in the context of childhood development?
• Design prompts and examples  – What cues or elements support this driver in a space? And how can it be integrated into the built environment?

PLAY 

Play is an instinct deeply embedded in human biology. It serves as a primary way for children to explore their world, experimenting with objects, understanding their properties, and navigating social interactions. Through play, children develop cognitive, social, and emotional skills that are fundamental to their growth.

Neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, who pioneered the field of affective neuroscience, identified play as one of the seven primary emotional brain systems. His research highlights that play is not merely a pastime but a biologically ingrained drive, fundamental to human nature and emotional well-being.

Many scientists emphasize that play is the most effective way to learn. Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and her team, through extensive research on playful learning, have demonstrated that the characteristics of play closely mirror how the brain learns best.          

The scenario for play can include free play, guided play, or structured games, taking place indoors, outdoors, or in natural environments. Play can happen in designated areas, like indoor play areas in schools, or become a part of everyday environments – for example, playful pathways between home and school. Regardless of the setting, for the play to be a part of learning, it  should be designed with specific prompts:

• Providing meaningful experiences – play becomes meaningful when children can connect prior knowledge with new experiences, integrating their understanding in a way that is relevant and contextual. Meaningful play aligns with children’s values and interests, often incorporating educational objectives aimed at developing skills such as spatial reasoning, mathematics, social-emotional learning, and language acquisition. Encouraging mystery, exploration, and interaction through wayfinding, storytelling, and spatial complexity, as well as designing spaces that introduce challenges, risk-taking, and competition, enhances engagement and social connection.
• Actively engaging – for play to be actively engaging, it must offer the right balance of challenge and support. When children face a challenge without direct adult intervention, they engage in exploration, problem-solving, and discovery, leading to deeper conceptual understanding. Reducing distractions, such as excessive noise or clutter, enhances engagement and focus during play. Introducing playful color schemes, light schemes, and materials – utilizing colors and materials to create unexpected interactions, sensory engagement, and imaginative discovery, exploring the properties of light in interaction with architectural elements. Reflections, shadow play, and changing light conditions can invite curiosity and dynamic engagement.
• Fostering social interaction – children thrive when they can collaborate, communicate, and experiment with both peers and educators. Socially interactive play environments encourage cooperative learning, helping children develop negotiation skills, empathy, and shared problem-solving abilities. Incorporating movable components, body-engaging features, integrated social games, and water play fosters interaction and active participation within the environment.
• Encouraging iteration – an environment that encourages experimentation and risk-taking fosters confidence and reduces the fear of failure. Children should feel free to test ideas, refine their approach, and investigate solutions without fear of making mistakes. Curiosity can be sparked through elements of novelty, complexity, incongruity, and surprise, helping children learn best when they can recognize, adjust, and resolve errors 
• Fun and the emotion of joy – joy is a crucial element of play, linked to motivation, memory retention, and creativity. According to research by Barbara Fredrickson, joy is most likely to emerge in environments that are safe, familiar, and unexpectedly rewarding. In play, joy manifests through thrill, pleasure, and enjoyment, making learning more immersive and engaging

SAFETY

Safety is a fundamental human need that allows the body to heal, grow, and restore. For children, feeling safe impacts social connection, self-esteem, and learning. In contrast, exposure to stress triggers the “fight or flight” response, shifting focus from exploration and learning to self-preservation.

Children are particularly sensitive to new and unexpected experiences, often reacting with stress. According to UNICEF, common stressors include negative self-perception, difficulties in friendships and social interactions, life transitions such as moving homes or changing schools, and exposure to unsafe environments. Childrens’ safety builds also on their expectation that adults have control over the situation.  

The environment should address the primary physical and psychological threats that impact children’s sense of security:

• Lack of clarity and predictability – ensuring that spaces are structured to provide clear, understandable, and consistent cues. Well-defined routes and rooms, gradual transitions between environments, and spacious layouts that allow for a controlled and manageable flow. Color scheme supporting clarity and orientation, serving as part of the navigation system, and marking different zones for better spatial understanding. Using materials as navigational aids and zone markers, creating symbolic barriers, and incorporating soft shapes and forms to enhance comfort and security. Lighting to improve spatial clarity, and integrate into the navigation system.
• Vehicles and crowds – managing potential hazards from cars, scooters, bicycles, and older children, which can create stress or pose direct threats.
• Unfamiliar or imposing adults – recognizing that certain adults may feel intimidating to children, either through presence alone or by limiting their sense of predictability. Designing lighting to support visibility and surveillance. Ensuring natural surveillance and clear visibility. Designing spaces that prevent adults from unintentionally creating a threatening presence for children
• Sensory stressors – ensuring that used forms reduce stress and that there are places which feel calming. Implementing curvilinear forms, incorporating sensory zones or rooms to offer calming and supportive environments.

BELONGING 

The sense of belonging is a fundamental human need, as essential to well-being as food and shelter. The human brain is wired to prioritize social safety and connection, making belonging a key factor in emotional stability and development.

This need is an intrinsic motivation, driving individuals to seek and sustain frequent, positive, and long-term relationships, even as circumstances evolve.

The environment should consider various aspects of fostering a sense of belonging by:

• Enable social connections and promote cohesion and bonding with others – defining social zones for groups of various sizes to encourage interaction and connection, both with and without adults, while fostering a shared sense of identity. Incorporating group seating, activity tables, nest or friendship swings, and buddy benches to promote social bonding.
• Allowing children to spend time in groups of varying sizes and identities -using distinct colors, material, and light schemes for different zones to help groups of children identify with their spaces. Allowing children to select colors through a participatory process enhances their sense of ownership.
• Ensuring that group interactions remain undisturbed and uninterrupted – designing group rooms and designated areas for collaborative activities, strengthening connections within peer groups.
• Providing access to adult support when needed and opportunities to observe and learn from adult behaviors – creating variations between public and semi-public spaces, enhancing comfort and social dynamics.
• Creating spaces that encourage the development of agency and autonomy.
• Ensuring inclusion, equality, and responsiveness to individual needs.

AGENCY

The sense of agency is defined as “the sense that I am the one who is causing or generating an action”. From early childhood, children begin to understand the causality of their actions, gradually becoming more intentional and purposeful in their interactions with the world.

Agency is a key component in the development of self-awareness, independence, resilience, motivation, autonomy, and social interaction. To cultivate a strong sense of agency, children should be given freedom to explore, support to build confidence, and responsibility to foster self-reliance.

Agency is a way of telling children: Your motivations, the truth you are following and the way you perceive reality are important and respected.

Hilppö et al. propose a framework of modalities that shape the sense of agency:

• To want a child’s motivation, goals, and aspirations.
• To know – acquired knowledge, skills, and hobbies.
• To be able – physical abilities and limitations.
• To have to – responsibilities and obligations.
• To feel, experience, and appreciate – the ability to process emotions and value experiences.
• To have possibilities – opportunities available in a given situation.

Educational models such as Montessori and Reggio Emilia schools exemplify environments that foster agency, allowing children to choose their own activities, set learning goals, and evaluate their progress, thereby reinforcing their autonomy and mastery over skills.

The scenario for fostering a sense of agency can be based on the following prompts:

• Designing spaces that empower children to take control of their actions – providing autonomy, and the freedom to make choices. Dedicated areas for experimentation, art, gardening, and other activities where children can see the direct impact of their actions. Bookable project tables which allow children to work at their own pace, fostering independence. Providing spatial layout and lighting that ensures both freedom and a sense of safety, supporting autonomy in different activities.
• Engaging children in decision-making processes with visible outcomes and influence, strengthening their sense of responsibility. Features that empower children to express themselves, such as magnet or cork boards for sharing ideas and making their voices heard. Implementing a participatory design process ensures that children are actively involved in shaping their environments.
• Providing support rather than direct instruction – encouraging independence while ensuring guidance when needed. Creating freely accessible and safe spaces where children can explore independently. Designing adaptable environments that children can modify, ensuring supervision without unnecessary interference, and integrating elements that allow children to participate in spatial organization, social tasks, or chores. High-quality, durable, and easy-to-clean materials that support children’s ability to interact with and explore their surroundings.

INCLUSION

Being included means being valued and respected, regardless of differences. The foundation of inclusion lies in acceptance, tolerance, and the active participation of those who might otherwise be excluded.

Inclusion requires acting without prejudice toward characteristics such as social status, nationality, ethnic origin, gender, special education needs or disability, sexual orientation, religious and political affiliation, language, health condition, parental education, and place of residence.

For children, inclusion extends beyond integrating different groups—it also means ensuring that children themselves have a voice and an active role in their environments.

The scenario for fostering a sense of inclusion can be based on the following prompts:

• Adapting environments to suit children’s dimensions and physical needs. Implementing universal design ensures accessibility for all. Prioritizing ergonomic design for comfort and usability. Designing spaces that consider children’s dimensions, viewpoints, and individual differences, ensuring accessibility and comfort. Making sure that lighting ensures appropriate illumination based on children’s size and perspective. Adjusting environmental features to match children’s pace (e.g., traffic light timing) and physical strength (e.g., door weight) for ease of use.
• Emphasizing equity by aligning resources with each child’s individual needs.

Use of colour and light scheme in a way which is visually engaging for children, adapted for neurodiversity, culturally inclusive, and universally accessible for individuals with disabilities. 

• Incorporating cultural relevance – ensuring the design reflects diverse backgrounds and experiences. Dedicated zones are designed to support the needs of different groups, ensuring inclusivity.
• Creating a sense of horizontality – fostering equal treatment and participation. Child-friendly, engaging materials, and of equal quality to those used for adults.
• Designing from a child’s perspective – ensuring spaces are intuitive, engaging, and empowering. Incorporating a participatory approach allows children to contribute to shaping their environments.

An example of an inclusive design with children in mind: railing at different heights. Kindergarten in Varberg, Sweden. Architect: Tengbom. Foto: Ander Sanner Fotografi

Conclusion

Children’s brains are highly adaptable yet sensitive to their surroundings, making evidence-based design essential in shaping environments that nurture their cognitive, emotional, and social well-being. The five drivers of children’s positive experience complete and influence one another. Taking into account the plasticity of children’s brains, those drivers help the children develop as thriving adults in the future. The common theme of the drivers is autonomy and enrichment, while ensuring physical and psychological safety and the possibility to build relations. 

While play and playful learning take place in sensory, motor, social, and cognitive-enriched environments, it is important to take into account children’s needs, like safety, belonging, agency, and inclusion. Those drivers shape children’s relation with other people and their environments, which is at the core of children’s wellbeing.  

The drivers of positive child experiences are always oscillating between what is the child’s and the adult’s responsibility. The responsibility of children is to learn and explore. Adults have a responsibility to provide respect and safety. This way, the bond between children, adults, and the rest of the world is strengthened. We find that the five principles defined in this article are a basis for the balance between those responsibilities. Asking “how can we enable the sense of…?” can help architects translate these senses into various architectural properties, which should be present in all places that children visit — not only schools and playgrounds, but also other daily places for children: housing, cities, museums, parks, or streets

References

1. Brown, T. T., & Jernigan, T. L. (2012). Brain development during the preschool years. Neuropsychology Review, 22(4), 313–333
2. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.
3. Gallagher, S. (2000). Philosophical conceptions of the self: Implications for cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(1), 14–21.
4. Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., & Wallace, C. S. (1987). Experience and brain development. Child Development, 58(3), 539–559
5. Gulati, A. (2015). Understanding neurogenesis in the adult human brain. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 47(6), 583–584
6. Hilppö, J., Lipponen, L., Kumpulainen, K., & Rainio, A. (2016). Children’s sense of agency in preschool: A sociocultural investigation. International Journal of Early Years Education, 24(2), 157–171
7. Hirsh-Pasek, K., Zosh, J. M., Golinkoff, R. M., Gray, J. H., Robb, M. B., & Kaufman, J. (2015). Putting education in “educational” apps: Lessons from the science of learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(1), 1–34
8. Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1970). The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. The Journal of Physiology, 206(2), 419–436.
9. Kempermann, G., Brandon, E. P., & Gage, F. H. (1998). Environmental stimulation of 129/SvJ mice causes increased cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Current Biology, 8(16), 939–942
10. Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999). Experience-dependent regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Effects of long-term stimulation and stimulus withdrawal. Hippocampus, 9(5), 653–662
11. Kempermann, G., Kuhn, H. G., & Gage, F. H. (1997). More hippocampal neurons are found in adult mice living in an enriched environment. Nature, 386(6624), 493–495. 
12. Kolb, B. (2018). Overview of factors influencing brain development. In The neurobiology of brain and behavioral development (pp. 51–79). Academic Press. 
13. Nesbitt, K. T., Blinkoff, E., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2023). Making schools work: An equation for active, playful learning. Theory Into Practice, 62(2), 141–154. 
14. Pakkenberg, B., & Gundersen, H. J. (1997). Neocortical neuron number in humans: Effect of sex and age. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 384(2), 312–320. 
15. Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press.
16. Stiles, J., & Jernigan, T. L. (2010). The basics of brain development. Neuropsychology Review, 20(4), 327–348. 
17. Strathearn, L. (2011). Maternal neglect: Oxytocin, dopamine and the neurobiology of attachment. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 23(11), 1054–1065.